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Connexin 26 Studies in Patients With Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Margaret A. Kenna, MD;
Bai-Lin Wu, PhD;
Douglas A. Cotanche, PhD;
Bruce R. Korf, MD, PhD;
Heidi L. Rehm, PhD
Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;127:1037-1042.
ABSTRACT
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Objective To determine the spectrum of connexin 26 (Cx26) mutations and their
phenotypes in children with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) or mixed hearing
loss (MHL).
Design Children with SNHL or MHL were prospectively tested for mutations in
the entire coding region of the Cx26 gene.
Patients Children with SNHL or MHL with no obvious etiology for the hearing loss.
Results Between December 1, 1998, and July 1, 2000, 107 patients with SNHL or
MHL from 99 families underwent Cx26 testing. Most patients were aged 1 week
to 16 years (61 boys and 46 girls). Thirty (30%) of 99 probands had Cx26 mutations:
biallelic mutations were detected in 18 (9 homozygous and 9 compound heterozygous)
and single mutations were detected in 12. Twelve previously reported mutations
(35delG, 167delT, E47X, L90P, M34T, G12V, V37I, R143W, V84L, V153I, V27I,
and 310del14) and 3 novel mutations (E129K, T8M, and N206S) were found. Hearing
loss in patients with biallelic Cx26 mutations ranged from unilateral high
frequency to bilateral profound. Four children, 2 with biallelic mutations,
had temporal bone abnormalities.
Conclusions Connexin 26 mutations are common in children with SNHL, and it is likely
that the homozygous and compound heterozygous mutations cause the SNHL. However,
pathogenicity is less certain when only a single Cx26 mutation is present.
Patients with biallelic Cx26 mutations had a slightly higher incidence of
milder hearing loss than in previous studies. Children with SNHL or MHL should
be tested for Cx26 mutations early in their evaluation.
INTRODUCTION
CONGENITAL sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) has an incidence in children
of 1 to 2 per 1000 for bilateral severe-to-profound losses (>50 dB) and up
to 4 per 1000 if mild-to-moderate and unilateral loses are included. Three
of every 1000 US schoolchildren have unilateral SNHL of 45 dB or greater;
if the threshold is changed to 26 dB, the number increases to 13 per 1000.
Sixteen percent of adults have hearing impairment of 25 dB or greater.1 Until recently, the cause of many of these losses
has been obscure, with identification of the cause occurring about half of
the time, and less frequently if the loss is unilateral or if the child has
no family history of hearing loss, no significant medical history, and no
dysmorphic features. The known causes of SNHL include genetic (syndromic and
nonsyndromic; congenital and "acquired"), viral, bacteriologic, traumatic,
immunologic, and drug-related causes and other medical conditions. Many authors2-4 believe that up to 50%
of congenital SNHL can be attributed to genetic causes; of these, nonsyndromic
recessive causes represent approximately 80%.
Standard evaluation of a child with newly identified SNHL includes thyroid,
renal, liver, and immunologic function tests; assessments for syphilis, toxoplasmosis,
and cytomegalovirus; and, frequently, consultation with ophthalmology, neurology,
and genetics specialists.4 Although genetic
syndromes such as Waardenburg, Usher, and Jervell and Lange-Nielsen are noted
in textbooks to be relatively common in the deaf and hard of hearing population,
in reality these syndromes represent a small proportion of this total population.4 Because the "yield" of most standard tests is low,
and these named syndromes are uncommon, evaluation of children with SNHL is
often inconclusive. In clinical practice this means that many children never
have a diagnostic assessment beyond audiometric testing.
The recent development of more accurate diagnostic techniques, including
high-resolution computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the
temporal bone,4 has enabled an improved yield
in the evaluation of children with SNHL. In addition, with the identification
of many genetic loci involved in syndromic and nonsyndromic deafness and the
subsequent discovery of some of the genes responsible for deafness at these
loci, genetic testing is beginning to emerge as a valuable tool in the clinical
assessment of deafness.
Genetic evaluation of a child with SNHL used to be limited to a dysmorphologic
examination and a detailed study of the family. Although genetic counseling
was frequently offered, there was so little specific information available
that most patients (and many physicians) did not find it helpful. The uncertainty
about diagnosis of genetic hearing loss is changing with the identification
of many "deafness genes" for nonsyndromic and syndromic causes of SNHL.
For nonsyndromic cases, 28 genetic loci have been identified for recessive
hearing loss, 33 for dominant, 3 for either dominant or recessive inheritance,
5 for X-linked, and 2 for mitochondrial.5 To
date, 19 genes have been cloned for nonsyndromic deafness among these 71 loci.
In addition to nonsyndromic deafness, more than 400 syndromic forms of deafness
have been described,6 of which several have
deafness as a prominent and common feature. These syndromes include Waardenburg,
Usher, Alport, Jervell and Lange-Nielsen, Norrie, branchio-oto-renal, Stickler,
Pendred, and Treacher Collins. Most of these syndromes have substantial genetic
heterogeneity, with 20 genes identified at the 28 loci involved in these 9
syndromes.5, 7
The most significant breakthrough was made in 1997 with the discovery
of the first nuclear gene to be implicated in nonsyndromic recessive SNHL,
the gap junction beta-2 gene (GJB2).8
Now thought to be responsible for up to half of all recessive nonsyndromic
SNHL, this gene encodes the connexin 26 (Cx26) protein and segregates at the
DFNB1 locus on 13q12. More than 60 mutations have been described for the Cx26
gene; however, 1 mutation seems to be especially common, particularly in white
populations9: the 35delG mutation, which results
in a frameshift and subsequent premature termination of the protein. A second
mutation, 167delT, has a high frequency in the Ashkenazi Jewish population.10 In addition, there are many other Cx26 defects, including
missense and nonsense mutations and small deletions and insertions. Although
mutations in Cx26 were initially thought to be responsible only for recessive
nonsyndromic SNHL, at least 6 mutations now seem to be associated with dominant
SNHL and 3 with syndromic SNHL.11
Connexins are a family of membrane proteins that combine to form intercellular
or gap junction channels. Although the exact function of connexins still remains
unclear, it seems that the intercellular connections that they form are important
in electrolyte, second messenger, and metabolite exchange.12
Immunostaining of rat cochlea shows that Cx26 is located within 2 groups of
cells in the cochlea. The first are the nonsensory epithelial cells, including
inner sulcus cells, interdental cells of the spiral limbus, supporting cells
of the organ of Corti, outer sulcus cells, and cells within the root process
of the spiral limbus.13 The second group includes
fibrocytes of the spiral limbus and spiral ligament, basal and intermediate
cells of the stria vascularis, and mesenchymal cells lining the scala vestibuli.
Kelsell and colleagues8 found Cx26 in the basement
membrane, the spiral limbus, the stria vascularis, and the spiral prominence
in humans. The location of Cx26 in these areas supports the hypothesis that
it is involved in the recycling of potassium ions during the transduction
process. It is proposed that functional communication between the supporting
cells of the organ of Corti provides an intercellular pathway for the transport
and release of potassium back to the endolymph.13
In December 1998 we set up a genetic assay to identify mutations throughout
the entire coding region of the Cx26 gene. Since then, we studied 107 children
with SNHL. Herein we report the findings from this study, including the spectrum
of mutations present and the clinical and associated audiologic findings.
PATIENTS AND METHODS
PATIENTS
All children with SNHL or mixed hearing loss (MHL) of unknown etiology
aged newborn to 18 years and cared for in the outpatient clinics of the Department
of Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, Mass, were eligible
for inclusion. These children and their families were offered Cx26 testing
as part of their SNHL evaluation.
GENETIC TESTING
All Cx26 testing was performed in the Genetics Diagnostic Laboratory
at Children's Hospital Boston. This laboratory is a Clinical Laboratory Improvement
Act–approved facility. Genomic DNA was extracted from patients, and
2 overlapping polymerase chain reactions were performed to amplify the entire
coding region of the Cx26 gene (GJB2). The following
primer sets (60° annealing temperature) were used for polymerase chain
reaction amplification: Cx1-F TCT TTT CCA GAG CAA ACC GCC and Cx1-R GAC ACG
AAG ATC AGC TGC AG; Cx2-F CCA GGC TGC AAG AAC GTG TG and Cx2-R TGA GCA CGG
GTT GCC TCA TC. Polymerase chain reaction products were purified and sequenced
using a fluorescence automatic DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems Division,
Perkin-Elmer Corp, Foster City, Calif).
GENETIC COUNSELING
Genetic counseling through the Division of Genetics, Children's Hospital
Boston, was offered to all patients before and after genetic testing.
AUDIOMETRIC EVALUATION
All audiometric testing was performed in the Department of Audiology,
Children's Hospital. Hearing loss was confirmed using age-appropriate audiometric
testing, including auditory brainstem evoked response testing in newborns,
infants, and young children; otoacoustic emission testing to further confirm
and characterize the hearing loss; and behavioral and frequency-specific testing
in children who were old enough to participate. A combination of audiometric
tests was often used to confirm the diagnosis of SNHL. Degree of hearing loss
was classified by calculating a 3-frequency pure-tone average hearing level
(500, 1000, and 2000 Hz). Hearing loss was categorized as mild (21-40 decibels
hearing level [dBHL]), moderate (41-55 dBHL), moderately severe (56-70 dBHL),
severe (71-90 dBHL), or profound (>90 dBHL). Hearing loss was also classified
as conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. The severity of loss in each ear was
noted in cases of asymmetric hearing loss (eg, mild/severe).
RESULTS
Between December 1, 1998, and July 1, 2000, 107 patients with SNHL or
MHL of unknown etiology were tested for mutations in the Cx26 gene. The 107
children were from 99 families. Most children were aged 1 week to 16 years;
61 were boys and 46 were girls. Mutations in Cx26 were found in 30 (30%) of
the 99 probands: biallelic mutations were detected in 18 (9 were homozygous
and 9 were compound heterozygous) and single mutations were detected in 12.
Of these 30 probands, 81% were white, 13% were Hispanic, 3% were African American,
and 3% were Asian. In all, 15 different mutations were found: 12 that have
been reported previously (35delG, 167delT, E47X, L90P, M34T, G12V, V37I, R143W,
V84L, V153I, V27I, and 310del14) and 3 novel mutations (E129K, T8M, and N206S). Table 1 lists the 30 probands (patients
1P-30P) who were positive for Cx26 mutations and 4 siblings of the probands
(patients 12B, 14B, 17S, and 9S) who were also studied. The most common alleles
were 35delG (40%), 167delT (19%), M34T (8%), and E47X (6%) (Table 2). The other mutations were only seen once or twice.
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Table 1. Characteristics of Patients With Connexin 26 Mutations*
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Table 2. Spectrum of Connexin 26 Mutations
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A variety of forms of inheritance were observed in Cx26-positive families.
Some displayed recessive inheritance (indicated by the presence of an affected
sibling and normal-hearing parents). One family demonstrated pseudodominant
inheritance (inheritance appears dominant because both parents and children
are homozygous for recessive Cx26 mutations). Pseudodominant inheritance was
also suspected in patient 11P because of reported congenital deafness of the
adopted proband's biological mother; however, this was not confirmed by genotype
because of unavailability of the biological mother. Most other children were
either singleton cases (no family history of hearing loss) or had some reported
family history of hearing loss outside the immediate family. There were 2
cases of apparent dominant inheritance, both in probands with only one Cx26
mutation, indicating the possibility that the dominant inheritance is unrelated
to the Cx26 mutation.
Figure 1 shows the distribution
of severity of hearing loss in the 21 children (18 probands and 3 siblings)
with biallelic Cx26 mutations. Although many of these patients have bilateral
profound SNHL, there is a broad spectrum of hearing loss severity, ranging
from unilateral high-frequency SNHL to bilateral profound SNHL. In addition,
2 patients with MHL (patients 14P and 14B) had a mild conductive component
to the loss.
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Hearing loss severity in patients with biallelic connexin 26 mutations
in this study and others.9, 14-17
In this study, severity of hearing loss was scored separately in each ear.
Data were not always available in this format in the other studies, so the
combined reported severity was assumed to be present in both ears.
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Temporal bone abnormalities were identified in 2 children with biallelic
Cx26 mutations and in 2 with only 1 detectable Cx26 mutation. Three of these
abnormalities were documented by computed tomography and 1 was documented
during surgery. The abnormalities included excess bone growth observed in
1 cochlea at the time of cochlear implant surgery (patient 3P), asymmetry
of the right modiolus (patient 12P), bilaterally enlarged vestibular aqueducts
and Mondini deformities (patient 21P), and unilateral partial deficiency of
the left modiolus (patient 25P).
In children who were homozygous or compound heterozygous for Cx26 mutations,
the presumed site of the lesion was thought to be cochlear. Of these children,
the number who underwent auditory brainstem response or otoacoustic emissions
testing was too small to make a statement about other possible sites of lesions,
although this would be an area for future research. However, if auditory brainstem
response or otoacoustic emissions testing (or behavioral testing) suggested
a retrocochlear site of lesion, further evaluation would always be undertaken,
even if the patient was Cx26 positive.
COMMENT
Three new mutations were found in this study: N206S, T8M, and E129K.
In addition, 2 reportedly normal variants, V27I and V153I, were also observed
in deaf probands. N206S seems to be a recessive mutation, although it may
cause a slightly milder phenotype. Both siblings with the 35delG/N206S genotype
had less severe audiologic characteristics, including moderate SNHL in one
child and unilateral mild SNHL in the other.
The E129K mutation was found in 1 proband with a unilateral high-frequency
SNHL. It is possible that E129K represents a dominant Cx26 mutation because
the father had almost identical hearing loss. Indeed, this type of high-frequency
hearing loss has been observed in patients with dominant Cx26 mutations.18-19 However, it is also possible that
the E129K mutation is not related to the deafness and represents either a
recessive mutation or a normal variant of the Cx26 gene.
The significance of the T8M mutation is also unclear. It was found in
heterozygosity with the V153I missense change. The V153I mutation has been
reported to be a normal variant found in 4 of 367 normal-hearing controls11; however, it is not clear if it has ever been found
in a homozygous or compound heterozygous state. Therefore, it could have acted
in concert with the T8M missense change to cause the hearing loss observed
in this patient. If that were the case, these mutations would both represent
mild recessive mutations.
The V27I variation was observed as the only detectable Cx26 mutation
in 1 deaf patient. Despite this, there is substantial evidence that this missense
change represents a normal variant because it has been found in many normal-hearing
individuals in the heterozygous state and in some normal-hearing individuals
in the homozygous or compound heterozygous state.20-21
Therefore, it is likely that the presence of the V27I variant in this proband
is unrelated to her deafness.
There are a few recessive mutations that seem to cause mild SNHL, including
the M34T and V37I mutations and the novel N206S mutation described earlier.
Although results of an initial study20 indicated
that the V37I mutation may have been a normal variant, several recent studies15, 21-22 have clearly demonstrated
its pathogenicity. We confirm the results of these studies but suggest that
the phenotype due to this mutation may be relatively mild, as evidenced by
the mild SNHL seen in our proband with a homozygous genotype. The audiologic
severity of this mutation is not discussed in other reported cases, so the
significance of this finding awaits further confirmation.
The M34T mutation has been the subject of debate since it was initially
described as a dominant mutation.8, 23
Numerous studies15-16,24
since then have suggested that it is a recessive mutation because of its occurrence
in the heterozygous state in the general population and its occurrence together
with the other mutant Cx26 alleles in many deaf individuals. Our results confirm
the findings from these studies but also suggest that the M34T may be a more
mild mutation. Four children in our study had a 35delG/M34T genotype, including
3 unrelated probands and a sibling. All of these children had only mild hearing
loss in at least 1 ear (the other ear ranged from mild to severe loss). In
addition, another study15 also described 2
individuals with compound heterozygous genotypes involving the M34T mutation.
Those 2 children also had mild hearing loss.15
Although making generalizations about the severity of Cx26 mutations is difficult
because of the known variability with the 35delG homozygous state, it is likely
that there will be some mutations that will consistently show a milder phenotype,
and the M34T mutation may be one such mutation.
The severity of hearing loss observed in this study varied but generally
was similar in distribution to that reported in other large studies (Figure 1).9, 14-17
The distribution in our study seems to be skewed toward milder hearing losses.
This may be attributed to the increased incidence of genotypes with the M34T
mutation and the presence of a few patients with V37I and N206S mutations.
These missense mutations may have less severe consequences on gap junction
function in the cochlea, leading to less severe hearing loss.
Two patients with only 1 detectable Cx26 mutation had temporal bone
abnormalities. It is possible that the hearing loss and computed tomographic
abnormalities in these patients were not associated with the Cx26 mutations.
In contrast, 2 other patients with biallelic Cx26 mutations had temporal bone
anomalies, indicating that some cases of Cx26 deafness are associated with
temporal bone abnormalities. This is in contrast to a previous study25 noting a lack of temporal bone abnormalities in a
Cx26-positive patient. More studies will be needed to address this issue.
Sensorineural hearing loss in children is relatively common and can
be compared with the incidence of Down syndrome (1 per 600 to 800 births),
cleft lip and cleft palate (1 per 750 births in the United States), and cystic
fibrosis (1 per 3500 live white births and 1 per 17 000 live black births
in the United States). Intervention includes early speech and language services
and the use of assistive listening devices, including hearing aids and FM
systems. Along with the development of digital and programmable hearing aids,
and significant improvements in analog aids as well, cochlear implantation
is now considered a standard option for the child with bilateral severe-to-profound
SNHL who does not benefit significantly from hearing aids.
Families want to know why their child has hearing loss because it may
affect their educational planning, the type(s) of communication mode they
choose, and the type of hearing aid or other device they purchase and because
it may predict whether profoundly deaf children will benefit from a cochlear
implant. Discovery of a genetic cause may impact family planning and raise
questions about the availability of prenatal diagnosis. Because the ethical
issues involved with genetic testing are complex, it is important to make
an accurate and timely diagnosis and to provide genetic counseling services.
The high cost of medical tests used in the evaluation of children for
hearing loss and the low yield of positive results from many such tests warrant
careful consideration of the optimal protocol. Need is particularly urgent
given the advent of newborn screening for hearing loss in many regions, which
will require providing diagnostic and prognostic information to parents as
quickly as possible.
In the present study, 30 (30%) of 99 children with SNHL or MHL had at
least 1 mutation in the Cx26 gene. Although the relationship between the Cx26
genotype and hearing loss is unclear in a third of these patients because
of the presence of only 1 detectable mutation, in the other two thirds a probable
causal relationship exists between the genetic abnormalities and the hearing
loss. The yield compares favorably with findings from high-resolution computed
tomographic scanning of the temporal bones in children with an unknown etiology
of SNHL (10%-20%).4 An algorithm in the evaluation
of SNHL could therefore use Cx26 testing as one of the first studies rather
than as one performed after all other test results are negative. Genetic counseling
should be offered to all patients for whom genetic testing is being considered
because the test results are often not straightforward and the patients need
to understand the implication of either a "positive" or "negative" test result.14
CONCLUSIONS
We studied children with SNHL or MHL who previously did not have a well-defined
etiology for their hearing loss. Of 99 probands studied, 30 (30%) had mutations
in their Cx26 gene: 9 were homozygous, 9 were compound heterozygous, and 12
were heterozygous. Three previously unreported mutations were identified.
Hearing loss ranged from unilateral high-frequency hearing loss to bilateral
profound SNHL. The severity of the hearing losses was similar to that in previous
studies, although a slightly higher incidence of milder hearing loss was observed.
Temporal bone abnormalities were present in 4 patients with Cx26 mutations,
suggesting that loss of Cx26 function can cause abnormalities in the temporal
bone. In patients with biallelic Cx26 mutations it is straightforward to conclude
that the hearing loss is the result of the Cx26 mutations; however, it is
difficult to make this association when only a single Cx26 mutation is present
(unless the mutation is dominant). Because of the high incidence of Cx26 mutations
in children with SNHL, Cx26 testing should be performed early in the evaluation
regardless of the severity of the hearing loss.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Accepted for publication March 19, 2001.
Presented in part at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Pediatric
Otolaryngology, Orlando, Fla, May 17, 2000.
Corresponding author and reprints: Margaret A. Kenna, MD, Department
of Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Boston, 300 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA
02115 (e-mail: margaret.kenna{at}tch.harvard.edu).
From the Department of Otology and Laryngology, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Mass (Drs Kenna and Cotanche); the Department of Otolaryngology and
Communication Disorders (Drs Kenna and Cotanche), the Genetics Diagnostic
Laboratory and the Department of Laboratory Medicine (Dr Wu), and the Laboratory
of Cellular and Molecular Hearing Research (Dr Cotanche), Children's Hospital
Boston; and Partner's Center for Human Genetics (Dr Korf) and the Department
of Neurobiology (Dr Rehm), Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical
School, Boston.
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